Biblical Border Town: Is Khirbet al-Ra‘i Where David First Ruled?

KHIRBET AL-RA‘I EXPEDITION

Over the course of the Iron Age (c. 1200–586 BCE), the small but strategic site of Khirbet al-Ra‘i, located in the Judean foothills (Shephelah) just 2.5 miles northwest of Lachish, was the quintessential border town. As revealed by our excavations (2015–2021), the site’s architecture, pottery, and small finds attest to the mixing of the various peoples and cultures who interacted across this landscape—first between Canaanites and Philistines, then between Philistines and early Israelites, and finally between the kingdom of Judah and its neighboring rivals.

The site sits on the summit of a small ridge that has commanding views over the Shephelah and the coastal plain and toward the northern Negev. It was on the route that connected the coast with the Judean highlands, and it was also positioned on a major trade route coming north from Beersheba. Anyone controlling the site stood to gain wealth and influence from the lucrative trade moving through the area.

We believe the site’s location, together with its archaeology, provides a vivid snapshot of a border town that played a significant role in mediating the Shephelah’s complex cultural and political realities, especially during the early Iron Age (c. 1200–950 BCE). During this period, Egypt’s once-powerful imperial presence quickly receded from the land, and new peoples, including the Israelites and Philistines, emerged to compete with the remaining Canaanite cities and towns for social and political dominance over the Shephelah. Khirbet al-Ra‘i may have even been one of the first towns David ruled before he was king, but we will save that discussion for later in the article.

We excavated four areas at Khirbet al-Ra‘i. In Area A (in the southwest) and Area B (in the east), we aimed to find the site’s fortifications, including the main gate. To the north, in Area C, we probed the site’s northern extent, and in Area D, the highest point of the site, we excavated a deep trench to reveal more of the site’s full stratigraphic sequence, which extends from the Middle Bronze Age to the early Roman period. We did not find any traces of fortifications, which leads us to believe that, throughout its history, Khirbet al-Ra‘i was simply an enclosed settlement defended by the outer walls of its perimeter houses.

In Area D, a poorly preserved Middle Bronze Age building (c. 2000–1550 BCE) was replaced by multiple buildings in the 13th and 12th centuries, when the site was likely home to local Canaanites. The most complete building from this time was a rectangular pillared structure that appears to have been cultic in nature. Inside, we found a bronze “smiting god” figurine accompanied by a stand and miniature bowl. Nearby, several intact vessels were found, as were sherds of imported Cypriot pottery.

During the mid-12th and 11th centuries, when the Philistines were well established at nearby coastal and inland sites like Ashkelon, Ashdod, and Gath, Khirbet al-Ra‘i grew to more than 4 acres in size. New buildings were constructed on the summit, including one square-shaped building with a large rectangular room in the east adjoined by three smaller rooms in the west. The artifacts and pottery found inside indicate this building also served a cultic function, but intriguingly, both Canaanite and Philistine materials are present.

LAMP AND BOWL: TAL ROGOVKY; SHERD: KYLE KEIMER

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In one room, we found a range of unique vessels, including a cult bowl decorated with a Philistine-style bird, a painted multi-handled krater with a handle in the shape of a bull’s head, a cult stand decorated with a pomegranate, a decorated wall bracket, and a cup-and-saucer vessel. Elsewhere, we excavated Philistine decorated vessels, another multi-handled krater, and a kernos (a ceramic ring with molded appendages used for pouring libations). Much of the overall pottery assemblage, however, shows a mix of Canaanite and Philistine forms. Some vessels are Canaanite forms with Philistine decorations, and others are Philistine forms with Canaanite decorations. The assemblage is also dominated by small bowls, which is characteristic of many Canaanite cultic contexts from the Bronze Age. This fact, along with the thousands of animal bones we excavated from the building, suggests the building had an important cultic function, perhaps even hosting communal feasts.

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The site’s eastern side (Area B) featured a monumental building with foundation walls measuring at least 45 feet long and more than 3 feet thick. Despite its massive size, the building’s function still eludes us. To the southwest (Area A), we exposed several other buildings dating to the same period. At least two are typical Canaanite houses, although both feature pillared courtyards, which may indicate coastal or Philistine influence. We also discovered several lamp-and-bowl foundation deposits, which were a common Canaanite practice, though one deposit also included a Philistine bell-shaped bowl, again indicating the hybrid nature of the site’s material culture during the 12th and 11th centuries.

Nearby we uncovered a large stone-lined silo in which a Proto-Canaanite inscription was discovered. The preserved letters of the fragmentary text can be read as “Jerubbaal,” which was the name given to Gideon after he tore down the altar to Baal in Ophrah (Judges 6:32).^a While the Jerubbaal of our inscription is unlikely a reference to the biblical judge, it is an important addition to our list of names from the early Iron Age. It shows that such names did exist during that period and that presumably the Judges story recounts accurate details from the 12th–11th centuries, even if it was composed at a later time.

SMITING GOD: TAL ROGOVSKY

JAR HANDLE: KYLE KEIMER

One of the most interesting finds in Area A was a shallow pit filled with more than 1,500 flint pieces for the production of sickles. This is the largest cache of flints ever discovered in the southern Levant. Geochemical analysis is being conducted to pinpoint the origin of the flint, which will allow us to understand more fully craft production and trade in the early Iron Age following the withdrawal of Egyptian imperial control.

The ceramics, small finds, and architectural elements all indicate that Khirbet al-Ra‘i was occupied by a mixture of Canaanites and Philistines through much of the early Iron Age. Most of the material is Canaanite and therefore presumably indicates a larger local element, but some of the pottery and the unique cultic items clearly attest the presence of Philistines as well. Indeed, this mix of cultural elements matches what is found at other border sites from the same period, including Gezer and Beth Shemesh, as the Philistines expanded eastward into the Shephelah. This expansion appears to coincide with the destruction of Canaanite Lachish in the 12th century, after which Khirbet al-Ra‘i became the largest site in the region. This change, together with Egypt’s withdrawal, allowed Canaanite and Philistine interaction to flourish.

DAFNA GAZIT

But this period of relative calm was not to last. Khirbet al-Ra‘i was devastated by fire multiple times during the 11th and early 10th centuries, though the extent of each destruction is difficult to determine. The first destruction claimed the cultic building in Area D, which was replaced by a larger building that, based on the number of jars and clay stoppers found inside, was likely used for storage. Even this building, however, was likely destroyed just a few decades later, in the late 11th century.

TAL ROGOVSKY

Following this presumed destruction, the settlement underwent significant changes. Much of the site was rebuilt according to a new plan, and there was a clear change in pottery styles, from Canaanite and Philistine forms to types that are more commonly found in the Judean hill country, the Beersheba basin, and the nearby site of Khirbet Qeiyafa, which many associate with Judah’s early expansion into the Shephelah.^b These changes suggest Khirbet al-Ra‘i became an Israelite/Judahite site in the late 11th century, which marks a major transition in the site’s history and has implications for understanding the development of early Israel and Judah, especially during the time of the United Monarchy under Saul and David.

TAL ROGOVSKY

But this early Judahite settlement was also short-lived. Excavations in Area B attest to a massive destruction in the late 11th or early tenth century. In a series of destroyed rooms, we recovered close to 100 complete or restorable vessels found lying amid the debris. Although we still don’t know who wrought this violent destruction, the Hebrew Bible, as we discuss below, may provide some insight as to whether the Canaanites, the Philistines, or even the nomadic Amalekites were responsible.

In any event, following this destruction, the site lay abandoned until the seventh century BCE, when Khirbet al-Ra‘i was resettled and included in the kingdom of Judah, as evidenced by a lmlk jar handle and a Judean shekel weight. The settlement was largely confined to the summit, where a large structure, perhaps a fort, was constructed. In one of the structure’s installations, an inscription reading kty was found etched into a potsherd. Though fragmentary, this inscription likely references the kittim, Greek mercenaries—also mentioned in the famous Arad Letters—who were employed in the army of Judah. At this time, Khirbet al-Ra‘i was likely a small Judahite outpost, manned by Greek mercenaries, that controlled Judah’s southwestern boundary in the same way that Arad guarded the kingdom’s southeastern border.

KHIRBET AL-RA‘I EXPEDITION

Khirbet al-Ra‘i, therefore, is an important site that is shedding light on the relationships between Canaanites and Philistines, Israelites and Philistines, and Judahites and their coastal neighbors. But does the Hebrew Bible provide any insight into the identity of this ancient site or the role it played in mediating relationships across the borderland of the Shephelah?

In the Bible, Ziklag was the settlement given to David, the would-be king of Israel and Judah, while he was working for Achish, king of Gath (1 Samuel 27:6). Over the years, scholars have identified Ziklag with more than a dozen sites in southern Israel; most can be disqualified on geographical, archaeological, or chronological grounds. Although some good possibilities remain,^c Khirbet al-Ra‘i offers the strongest evidence for being biblical Ziklag.

Geographically, it fits the description provided by the biblical text (Joshua 15:31; 19:5; 1 Samuel 27:6; 30:1, 14, 26; 1 Chronicles 4:30; 12:1, 20). Chronologically, it was occupied during the periods in which Ziklag was mentioned by the biblical authors. Archaeologically, it has a destruction layer dated to the late 11th or early 10th century, which corresponds nicely with the period of time in which the Bible says the Amalekites “burned” Ziklag as retribution for David’s earlier raids against them (1 Samuel 27:8–9; 30:1). Perhaps most important, there is a distinct change in material culture in the late 11th and early 10th centuries at Khirbet al-Ra’i, from a mixed Canaanite/Philistine culture to one that is distinctly Judahite. Indeed, its continued Judahite identity throughout the rest of the Iron Age seems to be remembered in 1 Samuel 27:6, which says that Ziklag belonged to the kings of Judah “until this day,” likely referring to the contemporary seventh-century setting in which the account was written.

The archaeological remains from Khirbet al-Ra‘i allow us to revisit the complex realities of cultural interaction, exchange, and identity formation over the course of the Iron Age. By charting changes in not only specific artifact and pottery types, but also entire cultural assemblages, we are shedding new light on both daily life and social transformation at an important borderland site in the strategic Shephelah region.