Moses and the Monks of Nebo

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The Book of Deuteronomy concludes with a brief description of Moses’s view from Mt. Nebo and the startling revelation that he would not be entering the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Deuteronomy 34:1-4). This short passage, and the following verse noting Moses’s death “in the land of Moab,” created a lasting bond between the story of the Exodus and the prominent mountain ridge to the northeast of the Dead Sea, a bond that still exists today. The site of Mt. Nebo affords remarkable views across the Jordan Valley and serves as a popular destination for tourists, pilgrims, and local residents.

The connection to Moses and the Exodus manifested itself during the Byzantine period (fourth–seventh centuries C.E.) as an expansive religious complex atop the mountain, known in Arabic as Siyagha (an adaptation of the name Pisgah in Deuteronomy 34:1). A network of monastic communities extended from there to the east as far as the desert fringes and to the south until the Wadi Mujib (the biblical Arnon River). This development was likely connected to the growing monastic movement across the southern Levant during the Byzantine period, exemplified by the Judean Desert monasteries near Jerusalem.^a As elsewhere, the 031Nebo monasteries marked and commemorated sites connected to both the Old and New Testaments. They also functioned to attract and accommodate the growing numbers of Christian pilgrims who were flocking to the Holy Land during this time.^b

Interwoven into this monastic landscape was an active and prosperous lay population that catered to its ascetic neighbors. The rural population also served the many pilgrims traveling through the region. Even the famous Madaba Map, an extensive mosaic incorporated into the floor of a sixth-century church in the nearby city of Madaba, may have been used by 032pilgrims to plan their journey and reflect on the locations they had visited.^c

As early as the fourth century, pilgrims describe a vibrant monastic community around Mt. Nebo. The pilgrim Egeria tells of a visit to the church and monastery at ‘Uyun Musa (the Springs of Moses), a perennial spring in the valley to the north of the mountain. The holy men who lived there were hospitable toward her and her companions. They invited them indoors and offered to accompany them to the summit of Mt. Nebo. Once on top of the mountain, Egeria visited a small church that marked the location of Moses’s tomb. The monks who played host to Egeria were part of one of the first monastic communities in the region. This community grew to include a large monastery atop Mt. Nebo and a series of smaller communities in the surrounding landscape.

The monastery of the Memorial of Moses on Mt. Nebo began as a series of simple structures built around several natural caves that could be used for shelter. These isolated cells were eventually refurbished to provide the monks with a quiet place to meditate and pray and to escape the bustling pace of the main monastery.

The focal point of the Mt. Nebo monastery was the Basilica of Moses, which, in its final form in the late sixth century, was a large basilical church with a trilobed apse accompanied by several side chapels and a baptistery. Nearly the entire complex was decorated with intricate mosaics. The nave was paved with marble tiles arranged in geometric patterns, a technique called opus sectile. One of the church’s most remarkable mosaics, which paved a baptistery on the north side of the basilica, depicts hunting and pastoral scenes and includes a number of exotic animals being led by men in distinctive clothing and attire.

There are numerous tombs within the monastic complex, but the most perplexing is the empty tomb in the center of the nave of the basilica, which was discovered during recent restoration work.¹ Located at the highest point of the mountain, this tomb initially may have been part of an earlier shrine dedicated to 033Moses that was later incorporated into the basilica and sealed under its floor. The monastic community of Mt. Nebo possibly regarded this tomb as a burial monument dedicated to Moses, and it could have been the one that Egeria and her fellow pilgrims saw in the fourth century.

There are also a number of funerary chapels on Mt. Nebo, many of which commemorate the life or burial of one of the original members of the monastic community. The Chapel of Robebus, located to the east of the monastery, includes two crypts that contain multiple burials. The excavation and analysis of these remains provide insight into the diverse cultural background of the monastic community at Mt. Nebo as well as the health issues that afflicted the monks.² Based on architectural, epigraphic, and chemical analysis of the crypt remains, it appears that about half of the buried individuals were originally from outside the Nebo region. Many suffered from common age-related health issues, including tooth loss, arthritis, and bone disease.

The monastic population grew and spread from Mt. Nebo to different sites, mainly to the south and east. Some monasteries, such as the Monastery of the Theotokos (referring to the God-Bearer, meaning the Virgin Mary, Jesus’s mother) at ‘Ayn al-Kanisah, were built in remote areas to provide seclusion for their residents. Other monasteries, such as the Monastery of al-Kanisah (the Monastery of the Church) near Khirbat al-Mukhayyat and the Church of al-Dayr (the Church of the Monastery) at Ma‘in, were located close to urban settlements.

These monasteries were built in the mid- to late sixth century. Although their communities differed in size and organization, each monastic complex had a chapel with adjoining rooms and was often paved throughout with mosaics. The mosaic from the Monastery of the Theotokos is 034the most elaborate, depicting birds and various wild animals surrounded by a grapevine, while the Church of al-Dayr mosaics feature intricate geometric designs.

Tombs were also frequently found beneath the floors of the monasteries. Beneath the entrance to the chapel of the Monastery of the Theotokos, for example, was a tomb containing two stone sarcophagi that held the remains of several individuals, including a complete skeleton that might be the burial of George the Recluse, an eighth-century monk, who is mentioned in one of the chapel’s mosaic inscriptions. Similarly, the Church of al-Dayr includes a rock-cut tomb under the chapel floor that holds the remains of a man and a woman. It is possible that these two were not part of the community but rather lay people—perhaps the monastery’s benefactors—who were buried within the complex.

The similarities in design and layout of these monasteries indicate their shared function. Each served a different community of monks, either living apart or communally, but they were all part of the larger Nebo monastic network.

The wide variety of titles that appear in the inscriptions of the Nebo monasteries attest to a well-organized network of communities (see sidebar, below). It is clear that a highly defined hierarchical system was in place to manage these monasteries. From the “archimandrite of the whole desert,” under whose control all the monks of the region operated, to the simple monk or the isolated hermit, every member of the community had a specific role within that sphere. The possibility of advancement within the community was available to most of its members. 036The different levels of responsibility inherent in each office allowed those who had previously been ordained to rise through the ranks and one day potentially become abbot of the monastery.

This complex hierarchy suggests that the Nebo monastic community was sizable. Unfortunately, there are no texts listing the number of monks in residence at any given time. We therefore have to rely on the size of each complex, particularly the associated church or chapel, to estimate the population of each community. For the Judean Desert monasteries, the population of a large monastery was around 150 monks, while medium and smaller-sized monasteries ranged between 50 and 20 people. Based on these estimates, the maximum population of the Nebo monastic network, at its peak, was likely around 700 people. The large monastic complex at Mt. Nebo could have housed between 150 and 200 monks. Medium-sized monasteries, like that of the Church of al-Dayr, housed around 50 individuals. The Monastery of the Theotokos was likely a small institution, with about 20 people.

While there is abundant evidence for the monastic network centered on Mt. Nebo, we have less information about the region’s lay communities and the two groups’ interactions. Nevertheless, the Byzantine villages of Mukhayyat and Ma‘in provide some data on the relationship between monastic and lay communities in this region.

Khirbat al-Mukhayyat, a small tell generally identified with the ancient “town of Nebo” mentioned in the ninth-century B.C.E. Mesha Stele,^d037 is located southeast of Mt. Nebo. Three Byzantine churches were excavated at the site by the Franciscan Archaeological Mission. The Church of St. George, named for a famous third-century military saint, is located on the summit of the site’s acropolis. A dedicatory inscription dates the completion of the building to 535 C.E. and mentions the resident warden who maintained the church.

A second church is situated at the northern end of the tell and dedicated to two saints—Lot, the Old Testament figure associated with the story of Sodom and commemorated at several sites along the Dead Sea, and Procopius, a fourth-century Christian martyr from Scythopolis (Beth Shean). The church’s beautiful mosaic pavement, decorated with agricultural and pastoral scenes surrounded by grape vines, is dated by an inscription to 557 C.E.

A third church, likely constructed in the late fifth century, is located off the tell to the east. Inscriptions on the building’s chancel posts mention Amos and Kasiseus, presumably benefactors from the local community, after whom the church is named. The Chapel of the Priest John, annexed onto the north side of the church, is paved with a mosaic that depicts scenes of rural life and includes the portrait of a woman who was likely one of the church’s patrons.

Three churches at a small site like Mukhayyat might seem excessive, but it is characteristic of Byzantine settlements in this region. The city of Madaba, just 3.5 miles away, has ten churches, and the famous Byzantine and early Islamic site of Umm ar-Rasas some 20 miles away has eight. Why these communities had so many churches remains something of a mystery. Different churches could have been used on different feast days, or perhaps some of the smaller buildings were used for private worship by wealthier 038families. These churches may also have accommodated groups of pilgrims traveling between the region’s holy sites.

The Byzantine village at Mukhayyat is undoubtedly located on the eastern slope of the tell, facing the Monastery of al-Kanisah. In addition to the Church of Amos and Kasiseus, which must have functioned as the main place of worship for the community, a number of architectural features have been identified at Khirbat al-Mukhayyat, suggesting that as many as 250 people lived in this area at the end of the seventh century.

Although there is little archaeological evidence for the inhabitants of Byzantine Mukhayyat, several mosaic inscriptions provide the names of some of the village’s residents. These benefactors would commemorate the passing of a family member or ensure their own salvation by defraying the costs of the mosaic. Some of these wealthy community members also sponsored more than one pavement.

A similar phenomenon occurs at the site of Ma‘in to the south of Madaba. In addition to the Church of al-Dayr, excavations have uncovered the Acropolis Church, on the summit of the tell, and the West Church on the site’s western slope. My recent surveys indicate that the largest concentration of people—possibly as many as 1,000—lived in the areas closest to the Church of al-Dayr and in the nearby valleys during the Byzantine period. Interestingly, no one seems to have lived on the northern side of the mound.

At Mukhayyat and Ma‘in, the village residents chose to settle off the main occupation mounds in areas that were closer to the local monastic community. The location of these monasteries may have played a part in their decision. Perhaps they were prohibited from building on the 039tell because the land belonged to the church. Or perhaps their decision was strategic; these villages would have benefited economically from their proximity to the monasteries. Groups of pilgrims would certainly have visited the monks in these communities, and the monasteries could have provided employment for the villagers. Further investigation of these communities might shed light on their relationship with the monasteries of the Nebo region.

The Byzantine monasteries and churches in and around Mt. Nebo provide clear evidence of how early monastic communities sought to preserve and commemorate the sacred landscape associated with Moses, the Exodus, and other well-known biblical traditions. A closer examination of the archaeology of these sites also tells us a great deal about the monastic communities themselves—their organization and their relationship to the ordinary townspeople who lived around them.

Mount Nebo in the Transjordanian highlands of Moab is where Moses saw the Promised Land before he died and was then buried. That biblical tradition inspired early Christian monastic movements and pilgrimage to the region. Discover Mt. Nebo’s beautiful churches and monasteries and what they reveal about the relationship between the region’s monastic and village communities during the Byzantine period.