“The Nobles of the People Dug It”: Remembering Three Archaeological Giants

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In the winter of 2017–2018, three giants in the field of Biblical archaeology passed away—Lawrence E. Stager, Ephraim Stern, and James F. Strange. They left behind a generation of groundbreaking scholarship, as well as the present generation of field archaeologists and Biblical scholars. In this memorial article, a number of colleagues and students who worked closely with these archaeological legends reflect on their remarkable lives, careers, and the lasting contributions they made to the field of archaeology.—B.C.

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Giant of Iron Age Research

Lawrence E. Stager (1943–2017)

In December of 2017, Lawrence (Larry) Stager, the most significant Biblical archaeologist of the past 40 years, passed away at his home in Concord, Massachusetts.

Larry received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1975, with a dissertation dealing with desert farming. He went on to teach Syro-Palestinian archaeology and Biblical archaeology at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago from 1973 to 1985, before returning to an endowed chair at Harvard as the inaugural Dorot Professor of the Archaeology of Israel and as Director of the Semitic Museum from 1985 to 2012. In his more than 40 years of teaching, Larry served as primary supervisor of over 50 doctoral students. He directed excavations at Idalion, Cyprus; at Carthage, Tunisia; and, from 1985 to 2016, the Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon, Israel. Larry was named a member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. In 2016, he received the Percia Schimmel Prize from the Israel Museum for his contributions to archaeology in Israel, an honor rarely given to a non-Israeli scholar.^a In 2018, the Israel Exploration Society will publish a volume of Eretz-Israel in his name—just the third gentile to receive this honor.

It is hard to overestimate the influence that Larry had on the field of Biblical archaeology; he revolutionized the field. To get a sense of his contribution, it is worth reviewing the scholarly landscape of the 1970s. After the death of William F. Albright, unexpectedly followed by the death of G. Ernest Wright, Biblical archaeology as a discipline was no longer fashionable. Archaeology in the United States was in the midst of a revolution, throwing off past ways in favor of new “scientific” methods. In such a context, admitting to being a “Biblical archaeologist” was a bit like walking into a chemistry lab and admitting to practicing alchemy. This same American revolution in archaeology also looked askance at archaeologists around the world (including those in Israel) who were not up-to-date on the latest archaeological theory or jargon.

From the beginning, Larry stood above these trends. He was secure enough in himself that he did not feel the need to limit what he could study or from whom he could learn. His training had already taken him to sit under the tutelage of Nahman Avigad, Roland de Vaux, Yigael Yadin, Trude Dothan, and others, and he found their understanding of the past to be incredibly stimulating. He had worked under Frank Moore Cross, William Moran, and Thomas O. Lambdin and saw great value in continuing to use the Bible, with the appropriate critical background, as a source for understanding the past.

As Larry thought about Biblical archaeology for the 21st century, he reconceived the relationship between Biblical studies and archaeology in order to emphasize what both disciplines could do best. In the past, the caricature (and often the sad reality) was that Biblical archaeology only served to “prove” or “disprove” the Bible. Did Abraham exist? Did David kill Goliath? Archaeological remains could never hope to answer many of these questions with any certainty, and this narrow focus ignored the real evidence that archaeologists discovered in the field.

As Larry thought about these relationships, he turned to the Annales school of French historians, led by Fernand Braudel. For Braudel, the everyday events of history take place in the context of longer social trends, which are themselves played out on the geographic landscape. To understand the events, you need to understand how they fit into these longer historical tendencies. For Larry, this framework was extremely helpful. To understand the Biblical poem of Deborah and Barak, for example, one first needed to apprehend tribes, pastoralism, family structure, and village commerce as understood through archaeology. Then, all of this needed to connect to the geography and ecology of ancient Canaan. Together, these broken fragments could be restored by the 049expert historian into the story of the emergence of Israel or the beginnings of monotheism.

Larry used archaeology and the Bible with a skillful awareness of what each discipline could contribute to the larger stories of history. He wrote on the Philistines, early Israel, Deborah, Abimelech, David, the Israelite family, child sacrifice, and the destructions of Nebuchadnezzar. Many of his research ideas became award-winning articles in Biblical Archaeology Review. Larry’s best statement on Biblical archaeology was his book Life in Biblical Israel, co-written with Philip J. King. Together, all of his works charted a way forward for future generations to realize that Biblical archaeology is a fruitful discipline that benefits from the heritage of archaeology in Israel and the ancient writings preserved in the Bible.

Giant of the Persian Period

Ephraim Stern (1934–2018)

Professor Ephraim Stern was one of Israel’s foremost archaeologists, a pioneer in his field with numerous achievements to his credit and an international reputation as a scholar. Alongside his academic pursuits, he devoted considerable effort to promoting public interest in archaeological excavations and research.

Ephraim was born in Haifa, where he was educated until his military service. In 1955, he began his studies in the Departments of Archaeology and Jewish History at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1968, he completed his doctorate dealing with the Persian period in the Land of Israel with high honors. This work remains of great importance to this day. It synthesizes and analyzes finds from the Persian period, which was until then an elusive episode in the history and material culture of the Land of Israel, with which Ephraim remains identified. He was among the first instructors in the Department of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University following its establishment. In 1971, he returned to the Department of Archaeology (later to become the Institute of Archaeology) at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, where he taught for many years, teaching and training several generations of archaeologists, some of whom have become current leaders in the field.

Simultaneous to his teaching duties, Ephraim conducted archaeological excavations and research in several areas—and continued to do so after retiring from his teaching post in 2002. He was a regular visitor at archaeological excavations, always keeping up to date on the latest discoveries, including those from periods outside his own specialization. In recent years, he took a particular interest in excavations underway in Jerusalem, which he visited frequently and discussed with their excavators to better understand the city’s history. In his own subtle way, he would often remark on the paucity of finds dated to the Persian period in Jerusalem.

Ephraim began his archaeological career as a staff member at important excavations, including those at En Gedi, Masada, Hazor, Tel Mor, and Beer-Sheba. He later directed excavations at Kedesh and Tel Mevorakh, culminating in extensive excavations that he directed from 1980 to 2000 at Tel Dor, one of Israel’s major archaeological sites. This was one of the largest and longest excavation campaigns conducted in Israel. It exposed remains of a multicultural port city, which was settled from the Bronze and Iron Ages through the Roman period. He created a model excavation project engaging hundreds of volunteers from Israel and abroad. It was at Dor that Ephraim became fully aware of the remains of a material culture belonging to the Northern Sea Peoples and Phoenicians, topics that would engage him in future research. Fully aware that the secrets of Tel Dor would require further excavation, and committed to publishing the results of his excavations, he passed the direction of fieldwork at the site on to his students, who continue to work there.

Although he is known as a foremost scholar of the Iron Age and Persian period and of the Phoenicians, Ephraim’s broad knowledge of the archaeology of the Land of Israel resulted in his appointment as editor-in-chief of the New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, (Hebrew edition, 1992; English edition, 1993; an English supplementary volume was published in 2008). His abundant energy, devotion, and involvement in every aspect of this important reference work 050led to its successful completion. The encyclopedia provides summaries of the results of archaeological excavations conducted at hundreds of sites in Israel for more than 150 years. It is a compendium of archaeological data from the Land of Israel in all periods of human activity, from prehistory through modern times. The bibliographies accompanying each entry are detailed and up to date.

The many books and articles published by Ephraim covering a wide range of topics brought recognition of his contribution to archaeological science in Israel. He was invited to present papers at scholarly gatherings and international congresses. His scientific achievements and contribution to archaeological research won him the prestigious EMET prize, sponsored by the A.M.N. Foundation for the Advancement of Science, Art and Culture in Israel, under the auspices of and in cooperation with the prime minister of Israel, and several other awards, including the Israel Museum’s Percia Schimmel Prize, the Irene Levi-Sala Book Prize on behalf of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, and awards by Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi and the Biblical Archaeology Society.

Ephraim’s public activity found expression in his many years as chairman of the Archaeological Council, a scientific advisory body to the director of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Ephraim also served for many years as a member of the Board of Directors of the Israel Exploration Society (IES) and from 2005 as its chairperson. In this role, he devoted time and energy to promote the society and its projects. The IES’s success was foremost in his mind, and he met the challenges of guiding and lecturing at the society’s conventions and editing its publications. Ephraim is identified above all with the journal Qadmoniot, published by the IES. From its initial appearance, he served as deputy editor and, from 1978 (except the years 1994–1998), as the journal’s editor. He maintained its scientific integrity and aesthetic presentation, achieving its status as the major Hebrew-language publication presenting archaeological research and discoveries in the Land of Israel and neighboring lands in a popular scientific format.

In appreciation of Ephraim’s contribution to IES projects, Volume 29 of its flagship Eretz-Israel series was published in his honor on his 75th birthday.

As we worked closely together over many years, I can attest to Ephraim’s positive outlook and love of life. Always pleasant to work with, he was a sociable person who developed personal friendships with colleagues and all he came in contact with, remained modest in spite of his lofty professional status, and was always ready to share his knowledge and experience with young archaeologists. In addition to his intensive archaeological and public activity, he found time for enjoyment of diverse cultural forms, including classical music and art.

Ephraim’s passing while still engaged in intensive activity has left a vacuum in the archaeological community and at the Israel Exploration Society.

May his memory be blessed.

Giant of New Testament Archaeology

James F. Strange (1938–2018)

James Francis (“Jim”) Strange was born in 1938 in Pampa, Texas, the youngest child of Floyd Thomas Burchfield and Buena Frost (“Frostie”) Burchfield. The family soon moved to Tyler, Texas, where he grew up with his two older sisters, Mary Lynn and Tomasene. Jim was adopted by his mother’s second husband, Jerry Donald (“Rip”) Strange.

During his early years in Tyler, Jim acquired a taste for the outdoors by working his way up the ranks of the local Scouting program. He eventually attained the rank of Eagle Scout. From his time in Scouting, Jim fondly recalls being driven to a farmer’s field north of town, where he and the other scouts were allowed to follow the mule-driven plow and carefully watch for artifacts to be exposed. Because the field had once been a battleground between the Caddo and the Comanche, the plow soon brought to light many buried arrowheads and potsherds.

After high school, Jim attended Rice University, graduating in 1959 with a B.A. in philosophy. Continuing his education, he entered Yale Divinity School, where he earned a bachelor of divinity in 1964. It was during these years that Jim developed a strong interest in the Bible and its setting, leading him to gravitate toward archaeology.

Accordingly, after graduation from Yale, Jim looked for a doctoral program in New Testament studies at several universities, asking to be allowed to research issues in New Testament archaeology. Two schools accepted his proposal and application—Drew University and the University of Montreal—both of which had fine traditions of Biblical and archaeological studies.

Jim decided to attend Drew University in 1964 as a part-time graduate student. In 1969, he interrupted the writing of his dissertation to participate in his first archaeological dig—the excavations at Tel Gezer under the directorship of Bill Dever. That is where he and Eric Meyers first met and became 051close friends. Jim served as an area supervisor at Gezer, an experience that fostered in him a passion for archaeological fieldwork. As a result of that experience, he was invited to join Eric as an area supervisor in 1970 at Khirbet Shema’ on what was to be known as the Meiron Excavation Project (MEP). Jim became associate director of MEP in 1971 and served in that position until 1981. It was there in the Upper Galilee that Jim earned the affectionate title of “Abunah,” or “Father,” when Eric explained to their Druze workers that Jim was not only an archaeologist, but also a Baptist minister. Jim considered archaeology to be a divine calling and his professorship to be his place of ministry. He often said, “I want to be the best archaeologist I can be.”

As a member of the MEP, Jim excavated small Jewish villages, especially ones with synagogues, rather than the urban sites favored by so many archaeologists at that time. Very few synagogue sites had been excavated in the years since the German team of Kohl and Watzinger conducted soundings at a number of synagogue sites at the beginning of the 20th century. By excavating four sites with synagogues, the MEP was able to contribute to what became a rapidly growing and flourishing field—the excavation of Classical-period sites in Galilee.

After completing his Ph.D. in New Testament studies at Drew, Jim accepted a position at the University of South Florida (USF) in Tampa, Florida, where he remained for the length of his academic career.

During his time at Rice, Jim met and married the love of his life, Carolyn Midkiff, who herself served in many dig positions, including registrar and camp manager. The two of them went on to raise four children, Mary Elizabeth, James Riley, Katherine Alexandra, and Joanna Carissa, with the entire family often spending summers overseas on excavations. All of his children worked as area supervisors at Sepphoris. This undoubtedly led to two of them following in their father’s footsteps: James Riley Strange, Associate Professor of Religion at Samford University and Director of the Shikhin Excavation Project in Galilee, and Katherine Strange Burke, a lecturer in Islamic studies at UCLA.

Jim distinguished himself throughout his long career at USF, where he began in 1972 as an Assistant Professor of Religious Studies and quickly rose to the rank of full professor in 1977. During this time, he served as Chair of the Department of Religious Studies, Executive Director of the Interdisciplinary Center for Hellenic Studies, and Dean of the College of Arts and Letters. Among the many honors he received were the Silver Medallion Award for Brotherhood from the National Conference of Christians and Jews in 1987 and a National Geographic grant in 1989. He served on the board of directors for the Florida Endowment for the Humanities from 1983 to 1987, was named Distinguished University Professor in 2001, and received the Charles U. Harris Service Award from the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR) in 2006.

Jim’s extensive career in archaeology centered in Israel, from his first experience at Tel Gezer to his serving as Director of the USF’s Excavations at Sepphoris from 1983 to 2010. In addition, he also participated in—or advised—excavations at Khirbet Shema’, Meiron, Gush Halav, Nabratein, Tell er Ras, French Hill (Jerusalem), Khirbet el-Qom, Caesarea Maritima, En Gedi, Survey in Lower Galilee, Yodfat, Cana, Qumran, Mt. Zion, Jaffa, and Shikhin.

Jim developed a range of archaeological skills that few possess. His work with his father taught him surveying with an optical transit. He drew balks, top plans, pottery, glass, and artifacts with precision. He wrote excavation manuals for Caesarea and Meiron and published articles on archaeological method and theory. Early on, he established himself as a ceramicist, and his work in the MEP allowed him to contribute to the typology of Hellenistic- through Byzantine-period pottery widely in use in Israel today. Jim was a polyglot, speaking four languages and reading 12 in addition to English. His desire to disseminate his research resulted in an impressive body of published works.

He lectured in the United States, Canada, England, France, Germany, Spain, Denmark, Norway, South Africa, Bosnia, and Israel—and was frequently interviewed in television specials on the historical Jesus and archaeology of Israel.

It was primarily through ASOR that Jim was able to maintain his close contacts with colleagues through the years, and his regular participation in its Annual Meeting and membership on the Board of Trustees meant a great deal to him and those around him.

Jim’s colleagues, students, excavation volunteers, family, and friends benefitted from his sage mentorship, generous friendship, and innumerable academic contributions, and for his being the very personification of the Gentleman Scholar. As such, he has been a true inspiration to us all. He died in his home on March 23, surrounded by family.

Three significant scholars—who shaped and influenced the field of Biblical archaeology—recently passed away, but their legacies live on. The impact of Lawrence E. Stager, Ephraim Stern, and James F. Strange will be felt for generations to come.