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INTRODUCTION

Between 1989 and 1997, seven field seasons were directed by N. Goren-Inbar of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem at Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov to facilitate recognition of the stratigraphic sequence. The sections, representing a 34 m-thick stratigraphic sequence, revealed that the geological structure is tilted up to 45 degrees at the study area. Excavations adjacent to the trenches (in three major areas: A, B, C) exposed over 13 Acheulian archaeological horizons comprising a wealth of botanical and paleontological assemblages. The lithic assemblages retrieved reflect the typical Acheulian tool kit: hand axes, cleavers, flake tools, flakes, and cores.

A paleomagnetic study located the Matuyama/Brunhes chronological boundary (790,000 years ago) in the lower third sector of the sequence, thus assigning a greater antiquity to the formation than had previously been assumed. The estimated duration of the entire depositional sequence at the study area is c. 100,000 years, assigning it to Oxygen Isotope Stage 18–20, thus making Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov one of the most unique terrestrial sequences known from this time range.

The site has been greatly influenced by the water regime of the paleo-Lake Ḥula. The water level fluctuated in a similar manner to that of the modern lake, causing the deposits to change from relatively deep-water sediments to very shallow, littoral facies. In addition to their inundation by the shallow lake, the waterlogged sediments were influenced by several fluvial systems that flowed into the rift from the Galilee Mountains in a general west–east direction (Naḥal Rosh Pinna, Naḥal Maḥanayim, Naḥal Dishon, and Naḥal Ayelet Hashaḥar). The stream loads from these systems were deposited in a series of fans that are frequently observed in the Ḥula drillings. The intensive morphotectonic changes in the region throughout the Pleistocene caused these fluvial systems to shift their courses in adjustment to the newly formed topographies. These developments are responsible for the waterlogged nature of the Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov site. In addition, the formation of the Jordan River, a young phenomenon in the region, was an important component in preserving the waterlogged nature of the Early–Middle Pleistocene sediments. These conditions ensured the outstanding preservation of organic material in the sediments of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov. The archaeobotanical research of this material is in turn a crucial component of the attempt to reconstruct the paleoenvironment of Lake Ḥula and its environs.

EXCAVATION RESULTS

THE PALEOBOTANICAL EVIDENCE. Rich botanical assemblages retrieved from the excavations include wood, bark, fruits, and seeds. Within the wood finds, 27 genera of trees, shrubs, and woody climbers were identified and are the primary data set for a basic understanding of the paleobotany of the Dead Sea Rift zone and its adjacent areas. The set also indicates that this assemblage was not affected by the continued presence, during hundreds of thousands of years, of hunter-gatherer groups that populated these parts of the eastern Mediterranean region.

In addition, over 130 taxa of fruits and seeds were identified, forming the most extensive botanical database of the Levantine Lower Paleolithic. An important aspect of the botanical finds is the edible component of these assemblages. An example is the 7 species of edible nuts: five extant terrestrial nuts and two extinct aquatic nuts that were found associated archaeologically with pitted hammers and anvils. Another botanical aspect of the site is a single worked wood item—a man-made polished wooden plank of a willow tree (Salix) (25 by 13.5 by 4 cm), the earliest known item of its kind in the world.

THE PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE. Extensive paleontological assemblages were recovered and include mammals (elephants, rhinos, cervids, bovids, hippos, and equids) and micro mammals. Also found are birds, fish, crabs, and an especially large collection of molluscs. Many of the species identified are important paleontological landmarks from both the perspective of biogeographical aspects and chrono-evolutionary significance.

THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES. The bifaces (hand axes and cleavers) of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov have been found in all archaeological horizons excavated at the site. The most characteristic tool type of the Acheulian material culture, they are mainly made on basalt flakes whose width generally exceeds their length. These flakes have pronounced, frequently thinned bulbs of percussion and striking platforms, and their axes of symmetry are either oblique or perpendicular to the axes of blow. The technological properties are observable due to the fact that later modification by retouch has been minimal and did not mask the earlier technological features. A detailed study demonstrates that the bifaces have been modified on flakes produced by several different techniques. It seems that hand axes and cleavers cannot be distinguished from one another on the basis of their size or shape properties. Raw material for the manufacture of these tools was probably procured from the site’s immediate vicinity, as inferred from the presence of several basalt giant cores within the finds retrieved from layer II-6. All these cores show large flake scars and some clearly display features indicative of the prepared core technique. The initial stage of biface manufacture consisted of producing large flakes of lenticular cross-section and a thin distal working edge. The second stage was flake modification, which consisted of the removal of extra thickness as well as minimal edge treatment. This reduction process is unique in terms of its uniformity and the homogeneity of the end products, which attest to a considerable degree of standardization.

The study of the Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov hominins’ technological abilities also resulted in the discovery of the earliest recorded Levantine use of soft percussion mode. The evidence is observable on both the basalt and flint artifacts. Excavations in area C resulted in rich flint assemblages (particularly of layers V-5 and V-6) exhibiting this technique.

PATTERNS OF HOMININ BEHAVIOR. The behavioral pattern that emerges is a varied one, expressed by patterns of raw material exploitation, high functional diversity of the archaeological horizons, and exploitation of the Mediterranean flora and fauna in the vicinity of the site—a unique ecological niche of high potential and great diversity. Hominins had the cognitive abilities that enabled foresight (multi-stage planning) followed by realization of their plans. A specific knowledge of the animals’ anatomy can be deduced from the location of cut marks and other types of bone damage and fractures caused by exploitation for marrow extraction and consumption.

Analysis of the lithic assemblages shed light on the complexity of behavioral patterns in the production of bifacial tools. It seems that different modes of activity took place: some bifaces were brought as preforms to the site, others were introduced as finished objects, and in some cases the entire reduction sequence took place in situ. Of particular importance are the latest discoveries, which demonstrate the presence of controlled fire in the archaeological horizons, the earliest record in Eurasia. Evidence comes from burned flint microartifacts and burned wood. The mastery of fire is of significance for diet and protection. It offered outstanding opportunities and indicates an evolutionary advance unknown elsewhere in Eurasia.

NAAMA GOREN-INBAR

Main publications: Y. Melamed, Reconstruction of the Landscape and the Vegetarian Diet at Gesher Benot Ya‘akov Archaeological Site in the Lower Palaeolithic Period (M.S. thesis), Ramat-Gan 1997; B. Martinez-Navarro, Study of the Lower Pleistocene Large Mammals from Israel: ‘Ubeidiya and Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (unpublished research report to the Irene Levi-Sala CARE Archaeological Foundation), 2000; G. Sharon, Acheulian Basalt Tools of Gesher Bnot Ya‘aqov: Experimental and Technological Study (M.A. thesis), Jerusalem 2000; G. Hartman, Ecology, Morphometry, and Taphonomy of the Freshwater Turtle (Mauremys Caspica Rivulata) in the Jordan Valley Today, and 780 KYA at the Site of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov, Israel (M.A. thesis), Jerusalem 2001 (Eng. abstract); N. Goren-Inbar et al., The Acheulian Site of Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov, Israel, 1: The Wood Assemblage (Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov Monograph Series 1), Oxford 2002; ibid. (Reviews) L’Anthropologie 107 (2003), 448–449. — Antiquity 77/296 (2003), 420–422. — Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 100 (2003), 597–598. — Mitekufat Ha’even 33 (2003), 212–217. — Paléorient 29/1 (2003), 171–172. — Quaternary Research 62 (2004), 324; Y. Melamed, Reconstruction of the Ḥula Valley Vegetation and the Hominid Vegetarian Diet by the Lower Palaeolithic Botanical Remains from Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov (Ph.D. diss.), Ramat-Gan 2003 (Eng. abstract).

Studies: N. Goren-Inbar, ESI 10 (1991), 2–3; id. (et al.), Mitekufat Ha’even 24 (1991), 7–33; id., The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia (eds. T. Akazawa et al.), Tokyo 1992, 67–82; id. (et al.), Geoarchaeology 7 (1992), 27–40; id. (et al.), Quaternary Research 38 (1992), 117–128; id., BA 53 (1993), 128; id. (et al.), Paléorient 20/1 (1994), 99–111; id., The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, London 1995, 93–109; id. (& I. Saragusti), JFA 23 (1996), 15–30; id., AJA 102 (1998), 760–761; id., JHE 34/3 (1998), A8; id. (et al.), Science 289 (11.8.2000), 944–947; 304 (30.4.2004), 725–727 (et al.); id. (et al.), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99 (2002), 2455–2460; id., Archeologia i Paleoecologia Evrazii, Novocibirck 2004, 267–278; id., Artifax 19/3 (2004), 10; id. (et al.), Science News 165/18 (2004), 276; id., The Lower Palaeolithic of Israel (in press), 14–16; I. Zohar, Mitekufat Ha’even 25 (1993), 103–119; A. Belfer-Cohen & N. Goren-Inbar, World Archaeology 26 (1994), 144–157; Paleoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins (eds. E. S. Vrba et al.), New Haven, CT 1995, 512–513; B. Bower, Science News 149/12 (1996), 183; 161/8 (2002), 117; C. S. Feibel (et al.), JHE 34/3 (1998), A7; id., Human Paleoecology in the Levantine Corridor (eds. N. Goren-Inbar & J. D. Speth), Oxford 2004, 21–36; I. Saragusti, JAS 25 (1998), 817–825; id. (& N. Goren-Inbar), Out of Africa in the Pleistocene (Quaternary International 75; eds. L. G. Straus & O. Bar-Yosef), Oxford 2001, 85–89; id. (& N. Goren-Inbar), Quaternary International 75 (2001), 85–89; id., Changes in the Morphology of Handaxes from Lower Paleolithic Assemblages in Israel (Ph.D. diss.), Jerusalem 2002; G. Sharon (& N. Goren-Inbar), Mitekufat Ha’even 28 (1998), 55–79; 32 (2002), 5–15 (et al.); id. (et al.), Eretz Zafon, Jerusalem 2002, 1*–19*; K. L. Verosub et al., JHE 34/3 (1998), A22; Annual Report of the Israel Science Foundation 23 (1998–1999), 70–71; S. Brande & I. Saragusti, NEA 62 (1999), 242–245; BAR 26/3 (2000), 18; D. Dag & N. Goren-Inbar, Lithic Technology 26 (2001), 105–117; E. Werker & N. Goren-Inbar, Enduring Records: The Environmental and Cultural Heritage of Wetlands (Wetland Archaeological Research Project Occasional Paper 15; ed. B. A. Purdy), Oxford 2001, 206–213; S. Belitzky, Quaternary Research 58 (2002), 372–380; E. Hecht, Archaeology 55/3 (2002), 5–15; G. Hartman, Human Paleoecology in the Levantine Corridor (eds. N. Goren-Inbar & J. D. Speth), Oxford 2004, 61–74; B. Madsen & N. Goren-Inbar, Eurasian Prehistory 2 (2004), 3–52; S. Ashkenazi, JAS 32 (2005), 675–689; W. J. Rink & H. P. Schwarcz, Geoarchaeology 20 (2005), 57–66.