Archaeological Views: Biblical Archaeology Through a Victorian Lens

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The public presentation of Biblical archaeology has been fundamental to the discipline since its origins in the Victorian era. The explosion in demand for print materials that emerged in the early 19th century and the rise of a literate, urban middle class encouraged the Victorian urge to “improve oneself” through reading and self-education. Of course, this educational content still had to be entertaining, and as BAR readers know, Biblical archaeology can be very entertaining.

Near Eastern archaeological discoveries were widely reported in the press, often in great detail. My favorite example is an issue of The Illustrated London News that printed copies of Assyrian reliefs excavated at Nimrud and then asked readers to help translate the Akkadian.

Since Near Eastern explorations were just beginning in the 19th century, not much was yet known about how these discoveries related to Biblical history. So journalists often covered them by focusing on another topic that was dear to the heart of the Victorian public: technology and technological advancement. These early articles often treat not so much the artifacts or sites themselves, but rather the engineering skills and tools needed to extract artifacts from the ground and bring them back to Europe or the United States. Austen Henry Layard’s excavations in Mesopotamia were pivotal in this respect; much ink was spilled on how he was able to raise the colossal Neo-Assyrian reliefs and statues that had recently been put on display in the British Museum.^a

The Victorian interest in technology stemmed from 19th-century understandings of progress and decline. That Britain had the technology to move monumental Assyrian statues was a sign not only of engineering skill but also of moral superiority. Indeed, this supposed moral and cultural superiority was one of the primary justifications for Victorian imperialism.

At the same time, however, the rediscovery of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia confused these notions of progress and development: If ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology and advanced social structures implied a sort of moral superiority, why had the civilizations died? Even more distressing, if a civilization as grand as pharaonic Egypt could collapse, what did this suggest for Victorian England?

Encounters with lost ancient Near Eastern civilizations were usually described as dramatically as possible. The cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia were depicted as exotic civilizations with values far different from the Victorians. Much of the art printed with these articles was only loosely based on excavations and emphasized the “otherness” of the places where the discoveries were made. Often these representations reflected male fantasies (such as harem scenes) that had little to do with ancient Egypt or Assyria but much to do with the interests of Victorian men. Many of the 19th-century illustrations portrayed ancient Egyptian men as snake charmers and women as belly dancers.

The Holy Land, however, was described very differently. Popular presentations of Biblical archaeology minimized the “otherness” of the Biblical world. From a Victorian Christian or Jewish perspective, it made sense that Egypt and Mesopotamia should be very different—and immoral, since they are generally the villains of the Bible. But this was problematic for thinking about the Holy Land. To explain why the Holy Land, like Egypt or Mesopotamia, was so “other,” Protestant writers argued that God had purposely limited the development of society in the Holy Land in order to allow future Christians to “see” the culture in which the Bible had been written.

Victorian churchgoers were comfortable with the new picture of the Biblical world that was emerging. Popular in both England and America were traveling Bible shows in which local people dressed up as Bedouin and played out Biblical roles and scenes. Seeing a local politician explain how to grind grain while dressed as Moses or David reinforced British and American claims to Biblical culture.

Today many people tend to think that one of the (perhaps outmoded) concerns of Biblical archaeology is to prove or disprove the Bible’s version of history. Surprisingly, there is not much hint of this approach in the 19th century. Statements that the Bible should be scientifically proven were certainly made at the foundation of the London-based Palestine Exploration Fund in 1865, but there is not much hint that anyone thought that the results could be negative.

In fact, popular presentations of Biblical archaeological discoveries, such as the Mesha Stela and the Black Obelisk of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III, 066 demanded that readers frame the Bible’s stories in an authentic historical setting rather than in some timeless, imagined world. After reading about these discoveries, people were no longer content to read the Exodus account merely as a conflict between Moses and Pharaoh. Rather, readers wanted to know which pharaoh. Even today, some BAR readers continue to demand these types of answers, even when archaeologists aren’t always able to provide them!

The public presentation of Biblical archaeology has been fundamental to the discipline since its origins in the Victorian era. The explosion in demand for print materials that emerged in the early 19th century and the rise of a literate, urban middle class encouraged the Victorian urge to “improve oneself” through reading and self-education. Of course, this educational content still had to be entertaining, and as BAR readers know, Biblical archaeology can be very entertaining. Near Eastern archaeological discoveries were widely reported in the press, often in great detail. My favorite example is an issue of The Illustrated London News […]