Big City, Small Town—Why Size Matters

BALAGE BALOGH / ARCHAEOLOGY ILLUSTRATED

With rare exceptions, biblical Hebrew utilizes exactly one word, ‘ir, to reference permanent settlements—everything from tiny villages to giant metropolises. This versatility leads to its frequent use in the Hebrew Bible, where ‘ir appears some 1,093 times. Its broad range of meaning gives us multiple translation options, including “city,” “town,” and “village.” English translations usually render it as “city,” with “town” appearing much less often, and “village” used rarely or not at all. This is not best practice! As we will see, many ‘arim (plural of ‘ir) were villages, not cities or towns, and most other Israelite settlements were in fact towns, not cities.

To translate correctly, we should consider our understanding of the words “city,” “town,” and “village.”¹ One factor is the number of residents: the greater the population, the more appropriate are the terms “town” and “city.” The Hebrew Bible utilizes ‘ir to reference settlements of 100,000 or more, including the ancient capitals Nineveh, Babylon, Memphis, and Thebes, which are all unquestionably cities. In comparison, Israelite settlements were not merely small, but tiny. The largest by far was eighth-century BCE Jerusalem, with a peak population of between 12,000 and 25,000. Second was probably the settlement at Tell el-Qadi, identified with biblical Dan (known as Laish in Judges 18:29), hosting 5,000 residents. No other Israelite settlement had more than 3,000 residents, and fewer than 20 had as many as 1,000.²

In addition to population, we must consider regional influence. Villages have little impact on matters beyond their gates; they exist to house and serve residents. Towns garner prominence from elements that attract visitors (e.g., administrative centers, shrines, craft makers, markets). A settlement that contains fewer residents than neighboring villages may yet be designated a town because of its regional prominence. Similarly, cities are like towns, but with greater population and influence as well as major cultural attractions, such as centers of government, learning, and religion. So to select the best English word to describe a particular Israelite settlement, we must consider population and the breadth and depth of its outside influence.

As noted above, the only ancient Israelite settlement that qualified as a city was Jerusalem, and even then, only after the construction of Solomon’s Temple in the tenth century. (Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom, had significant regional influence, but its population probably never exceeded 2,000 people.) Prior to Solomon, Jerusalem was too small to be called a city. Similarly, notable settlements like Bethel (where Jacob established an altar), Hebron (David’s capital in Judah), and Lachish (a heavily fortified settlement in the Shephelah) should be referenced as towns, and sites with fewer than 1,000 residents and little influence are best identified as villages.

How does this translation strategy impact our reading of the Bible? Let’s look at occurrences of ‘ir in the Book of 1 Samuel. The first relates to Ramathaim, Samuel’s hometown and Saul’s first capital. Ramathaim is probably the unnamed ‘ir of Samuel’s residence when Saul visits him in 1 Samuel 9. Whereas 1 Samuel 7 and 8 depict the prophet as a national figure, in chapter 9, Samuel’s prominence appears more regional—in fact, Saul has never heard of him! Ramathaim may fairly be called a “village” in 1 Samuel 1, but its function as Samuel’s home base and Saul’s future headquarters suggests increased prominence that warrants the term “town.”

First Samuel also utilizes ‘ir to describe Shiloh, the home of the Ark of the Covenant and a worship center mentioned some 32 times in the Hebrew Bible, including 1 Samuel 1:3 and 4:13. Although it is important enough to host Eli and draw visitors such as Samuel’s father Elkanah, its small population (under 1,000 residents, based on the archaeological record) suggests that it was a town, not a city.

First Samuel 5:9, 11, and 12 and 6:18 refer to the five principal ‘arim of the Philistines: Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. In the tenth century, the Philistines, though holding a territory similar in size to ancient Judah, did not have a single capital and instead gathered around these five settlements. Excavations show that Gath and Ashkelon were substantially larger and more industrious than comparable sites in Israel, suggesting considerable influence outside their borders. Yet it is unlikely that any Philistine settlement had a population greater than 5,000, meaning these five ‘arim are best understood as “towns.”

The settlement in 1 Samuel that most merits the designation “city” is the unnamed Amalekite center in 1 Samuel 15:5. Even though archaeologists cannot guess the location envisioned by the author, Saul’s enormous army (numbering 210,000 soldiers!) makes sense only for a sizable target.

Perhaps the most important instance in which we should translate ‘ir as “village” is 1 Samuel 16:4, in which Samuel visits Bethlehem to anoint David as king. There is little archaeological evidence to suggest that Bethlehem was more than a village during David’s time. This goes hand in hand with the important idea that King David came from the most humble of beginnings, born in a place without significance (as in Micah 5:2, another verse in which ‘ir should be rendered “village”). Although it is possible Bethlehem became more prominent in later centuries owing to its strategic location (the site’s fortifications are referenced in 2 Samuel 23:14–17 and 2 Chronicles 11:5–11), it nonetheless seems to have remained a relatively small village throughout the Iron Age.

In 1 Samuel 22, Saul’s men kill all the priests of Nob, 85 men in total. Given verse 19’s description of Nob as an ‘ir of priests, the entire settlement would not have had more than several hundred residents. We do not see indications of Nob’s influence outside of its gates, so it is best understood as a village.

Finally, in 1 Samuel 27, David’s Philistine patron Achish gives him Ziklag (identified as an ‘ir) to house the families of David and his 600 fighters. The location of Ziklag is uncertain; several proposed sites indicate a preexisting settlement with a substantial history. But per the text alone, Ziklag is a village: Its primary function is to house David’s men and their families.

Unquestionably, many occurrences of ‘ir in the Hebrew Bible should be translated “city.” But we need to be careful not to overuse this option. English offers us three main words to designate permanent settlements of varying size and importance. We should use them! Surely, this will help us grasp the biblical authors’ message.