Books in Brief
008
The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volume I, Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments
Edited by James H. Charlesworth
(Doubleday & Company: Garden City, New York, 1983) 995 pp., $35.00
The publication of this book constitutes the single most important event last year in the study of the Hebrew Scriptures and ancient Judaism, and I suspect, in the last decade. This magnificent volume takes its place, on the day it is published, on the shelf of every person interested in the Hebrew Scriptures (“Old Testament”). It replaces a classic of Biblical studies, R. H. Charles’s Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, II: Pseudepigrapha (Oxford, 1913), and today becomes a classic itself.
What has Charlesworth wrought? Why is it important? Let us begin by identifying the kind of ancient writings collected here. Jews in ancient times wrote many holy books; only a few attained sufficient status to be included in the canon of Scripture. Many other writings, although claiming divine inspiration, were not canonized. These non-canonical, or pseudepigraphic, writings were preserved either by accident (for example, in the dry sands of the desert) or by choice (for example, in the diverse churches of early Christianity). Not until the early 18th century did scholars, beginning with Johannes Fabricius, collect and identify these writings and study them in connection with the Bible.
When R. H. Charles published his great collection, which I referred to above, he selected from a vast and scattered literature.
Charlesworth and his coworkers in this new volume of pseudepigrapha have improved upon the past in two significant ways: First, they have collected, translated and annotated a great many more documents than Charles did. Second, and more important, Charlesworth and his colleagues take these writings seriously in their own terms. This is in marked contrast to scholars in prior generations who took special interest in pseudepigraphic writings only because they might illuminate the life and times of Jesus; for these scholars, the pseudepigrapha were simply part of the Jewish background of what really mattered.
Charlesworth and his colleagues thus present us with a vast repertoire of ancient Jewish writings—much as the Dead Sea Scrolls have done—in order to illuminate that world for its own sake. It is a truly liberal spirit that animates these excellent scholars who have translated the ancient works in this collection. Most of the specialists who worked on the project are in fact believing Christians; it is with no small measure of pride that we observe that ours is an age in which Christianity allows ancient Judaism to come to center stage and speak in its own terms and through its own writings. In time to come, I hope, faithful Jews will take up the work of studying the earliest phases of Christianity, doing so with equal liberality of spirit and respect for the spiritual treasures of others.
A pseudepigraphic work is a writing attributed by the author to some other person—hence the “pseud-.” In the case of the writings in this collection, from whom do we hear? No lesser personalities than Enoch, Shem, Ezekiel, Zephaniah, Ezra (many times!), Baruch, Abraham, Elijah, Daniel, the 12 patriarchs, Moses, Solomon, and even Adam. What we see is a catalogue of the great figures in ancient Israelite life who made a deep impression on the imagination of later writers. These later writers speak in the name of the great heroes of the past. We ourselves sometimes compose this way in our minds: “What would I say, in such and such a situation, if I were George Washington?”
In ancient times using one’s imagination to write fiction was not thought to be a significant literary genre. People believed that God governed human affairs (Israel’s in particular), and they therefore wanted to hear a message from God through a figure worthy of receiving and handing on such a message. Hence we hear not from a second-century B.C. writer himself but from Adam of Eden, Moses of Sinai, Ezra of the restoration, and equivalent prophets and holy men. (None of the writers or the people through whom they speak is a woman.)
The writings in this collection were composed from about the second century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. Most are dated by the translators to between the second century B.C. and the second century A.D. But the dates are difficult to fix exactly. Some are dated simply “prior to ninth century A.D.” or by similar vague notations. No one is to be blamed. The evidence is what it is.
Charlesworth has brought together nearly 30 of these documents, some of them brief, most of them quite long. These are divided 010into two parts, each a different literary genre. The first part is called “apocalyptic literature and related works”; the second, “testaments (often with apocalyptic sections).” Each entry introducing an ancient document consists of an introduction, with a synopsis—that is, a narrative and a description of the main ideas. We are told about the texts, the original language, the date and point of origin, the document’s historical importance, its theological importance, its relation to canonical books, its relation to apocryphal books, and its cultural importance. Then comes the translation itself, fully annotated. Each document is outlined through subheads, so that we have something clearer than simply long columns of undifferentiated type (such as we usually find in translations of the rabbinic classics, for example). At the end is a select bibliography, including texts, translations, and other studies. The translation contains annotations on divergent readings or possibilities other than the one given in the text. Down the side run parallel references, so that we can study not only the text at hand but all possible cross-references. In all, I cannot imagine how, except in details that would elude an outsider to the field such as myself, Charlesworth and his coworkers could have given us a better book. It is a masterpiece of both erudition and thoughtful presentation, a standard reference work, a required text for its field.
I simply list below the titles of the books, together with the names of the scholars who edited and translated them.
Apocalyptic literature and related works: 1 (Ethiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch, E. Isaac; 2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch, F. I. Andersen; (Hebrew Apocalypse of) Enoch, P. Alexander; Sibylline Oracles, J. J. Collins; Treatise of Shem, H. J. Charlesworth; Apocryphon of Ezekiel, J. R. Mueller and S. E. Robinson; Apocalypse of Zephaniah, O. S. Wintermute; Fourth Book of Ezra, B. M. Metzger; Greek Apocalypse of Ezra, M. E. Stone; Vision of Ezra, J. R. Mueller and G. A. Robbins; Questions of Ezra, M. E. Stone; Revelation of Ezra, D. A. Fiensy; Apocalypse of Sedrah, S. Agourides; 2 (Syriac Apocalypse of) Banuch, A. F. J. Klijn; 3 (Greek Apocalypse of) Baruch, H. E. Gaylord, Jr.; Apocalypse of Abraham, R. Rubinkiewicz; Apocalypse of Adam, G. MacRae; Apocalypse of Elijah, O. S. Wintermute; Apocalypse of Daniel, G. T. Verbos.
Testaments (often with apocalyptic sections): Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, H. C. Kee; Testament of Job, R. P. Spittler; Testaments of the Three Patriarchs, introduced by E. P. Sanders; Testament of Abraham, E. P. Sanders; Testament of Isaac, W. F. Stinespring; Testament of Jacob, W. F. Stinespring; Testament of Moses, J. Priest; Testament of Solomon, D. E. Duling; Testament of Adam, S. E. Robinson.
There it is, a giant of learning, a masterpiece of scholarship, produced by scholars working together under effective and intelligent leadership, and—it is self-evident—with a publisher well in command of the project.
There will be a second volume, Expansions of the “Old Testament” and Other Legends, Wisdom and Philosophical Literature, Prayers, Psalms, and Odes, Fragments of Lost Judeo-Hellenistic Works. Since Volume I has no index of any kind, we may be certain that it will be in Volume II. I count 64 separate items for Volume II, so if Volume I is a monument, the second volume will be larger—but in quality, surely no greater.
It is noteworthy that among the 24 contributors to Volume I, 19 are either American scholars or scholars who received their doctorates in the United States. Moreover, the vast majority are young and now hold untenured positions, that is, assistant professorships and similar positions. What this tells us is that in the coming generation, the center of gravity for the study of Judaism from Ezra onward will shift decisively to this country (if it has not already done so). The leadership of James Charlesworth and the commitment of Doubleday in no small measure explain why.
Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Palaeography
Bruce M. Metzger
(Oxford University Press: New York and Oxford, 1981) 150 pp., $19.95
This is one of the most useful books on the palaeography of the Greek Bible ever to appear. The author, Bruce Metzger, George L. Collord Professor of New Testament Language and Literature at Princeton Theological Seminary, offers the fruits of a lifetime of study of the Bible manuscripts of the early Church. The book contains everything you have always wanted to know about Bible manuscripts but did not know where to ask.
Metzger defines palaeography as “the science that studies ancient writing, preserved on papyrus, parchment, or paper, occasionally on potsherds, wood, or waxed tablets.” Metzger tells us about the kinds of ancient writing materials, styles of writing, scribal idiosyncrasies, and the appearance of manuscripts and presents various odd bits and pieces of information to delight and instruct.
The book is divided into two parts. Part one is an introduction to palaeographic matters; part two consists of 45 photographic plates of Greek manuscripts dating from the second century B.C. to the 15th century A.D. A commentary accompanies each plate, giving the date and other significant information about the manuscript. Metzger selected only important and representative photographs that illustrate handwriting and interesting or unusual scribal practices.
After a brief history of palaeography, Metzger gives us a brief history of the Greek alphabet and its Semitic origins. He explains that originally the Greek alphabet contained three additional letters—waw or digamma, kappa, and sampi—that eventually fell out of use, except in the Greek system of numerals.
The book contains brief sections on the sounds of Greek letters, accents, materials out of which ancient books were made (the two most widely used were papyrus and parchment, which is also called vellum), the format of ancient books (that is, either a scroll or codex, the latter being the leaf-book we know and use today), and pen, ink and other writing materials.
The author describes the transcription of 012Greek manuscripts and various aspects of scribal practice. Colophons, scribal notes appended at the close of manuscripts, often speak of the drudgery of copying by hand. For example, “The end of the book—thanks be to God.” Another is, “Writing bows one’s back, thrusts the ribs into one’s stomach, and fosters a general debility of the body.”
Metzger explains that variant readings are often to be traced to the similarity of Greek letters or words. An example is 1 Timothy 3:16, where some manuscripts read: “Who was manifested in the flesh”; others read: “God was manifested in the flesh.” In ancient uncial script, “Who” and the abbreviation for “God” were similar in appearance.
Metzger discusses various types of handwriting, including capitals (used basically in inscriptions), uncials (a modification of capitals), cursive (a development of uncial script and used concurrently with it) and minuscule (a special form of cursive that came into being at the beginning of the ninth century). He includes a brief discussion of abbreviations and symbols, scripto continua (a lack of separation between words and sentences), and punctuation.
Metzger also discusses special features of Biblical manuscripts. These include: (1) the Tetragrammaton (the divine name YHWH, written in Hebrew letters or transliterated into Greek, appearing occasionally in manuscripts of the Greek Old Testament); (2) nomina sacra (15 sacred words written in abbreviated form, such as: God, Lord, Jesus, Christ); (3) hexaplaric signs (critical signs developed at Alexandria and used by Origen in marking the Septuagint to show its relationship to the Hebrew); (4) stichometry and colometry (pertaining to ways ancient writings were broken up into lines of standard measure or sense); (5) superscriptions and subscriptions (titles at the beginning and ending of books); (6) chapter divisions and headings; (7) the Eusebian Canon Tables (a system of cross references 014appearing in many Gospel manuscripts); (8) the Euthalian apparatus (a collection of editorial material in manuscripts of Acts and the Epistles that circulated under the name of Euthalius); (9) hypothesis (a prologue or brief introduction to a book); (10) lectionary equipment (signs in ancient Biblical manuscripts that mark passages of Scripture to be read on a given day); (11) neumes (Byzantine musical notes); (12) miniatures (pictures that illustrate the text); and (13) glosses, lexica, onomastica and commentaries (marginal notes explaining the text or some aspect of it).
In three appendixes, Metzger instructs us on “How to Estimate the Date of a Greek Manuscript,” “How to Collate a Greek Manuscript” and “Statistics Relating to the Manuscripts of the Greek New Testament.” In addition, the text contains a series of charts showing the actual forms of letters on known Greek manuscripts.
The 45 plates in part two are carefully chosen from a great host of manuscripts because of some special feature each specimen page contains. A great deal is to be learned from the photographs, since the reader is brought into direct contact with a cross section of the history of the Greek Bible. The plates include one from the first century B.C. containing portions of Deuteronomy 31–32 and showing the Hebrew Tetragrammaton written into the Greek text. Another, the John Rylands fragment (100–150 A.D.) shows a brief section from John 18; it is generally accepted as the earliest fragment of the Greek New Testament extant.
The book has two weaknesses. First, although the author covers the Greek text of both the Old and the New Testaments, his treatment of the New Testament is far more significant than his treatment of the Old. Second, in some ways the book is strikingly similar to B. A. Van Groningen’s work on the same subject, Greek Palaeography (Third Ed., A. W. Sythoff: Leiden, 1963).
Overall, however, Dr. Metzger is to be congratulated for this fine piece of scholarship that is useful for students as well as experts.
The Other Gospels: Non-Canonical Gospel Texts
Edited by Ron Cameron
(Westminster Press: Philadelphia, 1982) 192 pp., paperback $11.95
The four canonical Gospels were not the only Gospels produced by the Church. The Book of Mark is generally regarded as the earliest narrative Gospel (about 70 A.D.). But even Mark competed with an anonymous “sayings” collection written some years earlier. Both Mark and this early “sayings” collection were later used as sources by Matthew and Luke who incorporated these earlier works into their own Gospels. However, Matthew and Luke edited them to produce versions that were more acceptable and versatile than Mark. For example, Matthew arranged large sections of his material in six discourses of Jesus that were used as instructional handbooks in the church. Thus, Matthew and Luke—the new editions of the early Gospel tradition—are different in literary form and theological stance from what went before, although these differences seem rather minor when compared to the strikingly different Gospel of John.
The fourfold canonical Gospel tradition—Matthew, Mark, Luke and John—came to dominate the church in the second and later centuries A.D. But these were not the only Gospel texts produced in the early period of the church’s literary activity. The evidence for other first-century A.D. Gospels is meager but nevertheless clear. Indeed, Luke himself tells his readers (Luke 1:14) that his work has been preceded by the work of many others, whose narratives, he suggests, were somewhat deficient. Luke unfortunately did not give us the names of his predecessors and early competitors. Nevertheless, some of these first-century texts have survived. We know the names of others from later sources that mention them, but unfortunately the texts themselves have succumbed to the ravages of time and the censor’s pen. Some of these were cited as authoritatively as the four canonical Gospels were. Others were rejected and suppressed as spurious.
Ron Cameron has collected into one volume the 16 earliest of the competitors to the fourfold Gospel canon of the church. He dates all but one (The Acts of Pilate, second to third century A.D.) to the first and second centuries A.D. The methods that one must use to date such texts are not absolute, and hence it is difficult to write with absolute certainty a chronological history of early Christian literature.
Many of the documents Cameron includes have the title of “Gospel,” but they are often quite different from the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. In the early period before the canonical Gospels exerted a dominant influence over the life of the church, the term “gospel”. was more fluid. Initially it described a joyous oral announcement that was used in both Christian and non-Christian contexts, for example, in the New Testament, Mark 1:14, 10:29 and Galatians 1:6–9. Indeed, the term’s application to the four canonical Gospels demonstrates that the use of the term implied no set literary form for texts because the formal characteristics as well as the theological stances of the canonical 015Gospels are quite different from each other.
Cameron’s introduction and the preface by his mentor at Harvard, Helmut Koester, give two principal reasons for studying these non-canonical documents: First, they are part of the historical development of early Christian Gospel literature, even though they were rejected from the canon. Second, they may yet alter our understanding of ancient Christian history.
Cameron’s brief preface to each document presents an introduction to the critical issues and arms the reader with a basic set of critical questions with which to address each text.
Cameron presents the Gospels in a sequence that reflects his understanding of the development of Gospel literature earliest text to latest, from single sayings and sayings collections based on oral tradition (independent of the canonical Gospels) to narrative texts based on the fourfold canonical Gospel tradition. The arrangement of these texts reflects the influence of the same historical pressures that affected the development of the canonical Gospels, and hence may be viewed as a kind of literary matrix for understanding how the four canonical Gospels themselves developed.
A brief description of these non-canonical Gospels will give a general idea of their contents.
The first clear reference to The Gospel of Thomas is a citation of its sayings by Hippolytus, an early third-century Christian writer. Cameron dates the original composition of this Gospel to the second half of the first century A.D. Only a few fragments from different Greek versions have survived. A complete Coptic translation, however, was discovered in 1945 at Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt (see “The Nag Hammadi Codices Shed New Light on Early Christian History,” in this issue). This Coptic translation included sayings of Jesus that are similar to sayings in the canonical Gospels. It is based on a sayings tradition similar to, but independent of, the Synoptic Gospels. The complete Nag Hammadi corpus, a collection of heretical Christian literature, has been available in English only since 1977.
Another discovery from Nag Hammadi is The Dialogue of the Savior. Originally written in Greek, this document has survived in a single fragmentary Coptic text. It purports to be a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples, Judas, Matthew and Mariam, but is actually a collection of diverse sayings whose primary theological concern is eschatology, the study of the end of the world. The text interprets the salvation associated with the end times paradoxically as being a future event but also as being available in the present. The dialogue source of the text dates from the second half of the first century and has parallels with the canonical Gospels and with The Gospel of Thomas.
The Gospel of the Egyptians, not to be confused with the Nag Hammadi Gospel of the Egyptians, survives only in a few quotations by Clement of Alexandria, a Christian writer who lived at the end of the second century A.D. The text, popular among certain ascetic groups, is quoted by Clement, who used brief sections of it to refute his opponents. The composition of the document is dated by Cameron to the late first century or early second century. The text reflects an extreme sexual asceticism as the means of overcoming the distinction between the sexes and achieving the original androgynous (male/female) state of the first man, Adam. The ideal human state is understood to be that of Adam, who was originally created as a being who was at once both male and female. Only later were these principles separated so that s/he became Adam and Eve. This text rejects sexual intercourse as a correct way of regaining the original condition (compare for example 1 Corinthians 6:15–17). Only through asceticism can 016one regain that original state.
All that remains of the Gospel known as Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 840 is a single tiny parchment leaf discovered in 1905 in Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. The date of its composition according to Cameron is the second half of the first century A.D. The text consists of a controversy in which Jesus debates with a Pharisee over Jewish purification rites. The controversy is similar to the debates that one finds in Mark 7:1–23. Cameron believes the narrative derives ultimately from an oral tradition rather than from the canonical Gospels.
Originally written in Greek, The Apocryphon of James survives in a single Coptic translation that was part of the Nag Hammadi library. It takes the form of a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples, Peter and James, in which the disciples ask short questions and Jesus gives lengthy speeches in response. These speeches are, however, composed principally of discrete sayings. Some of these sayings appear in the New Testament, but none reflects a dependence upon the canonical Gospels. Apparently, they came from an independent source. Indeed, it has been argued elsewhere that two of the parables in this text are genuine sayings of Jesus, although they are not known in the canonical Gospels. Cameron dates the composition of the text to the first half of the second century A.D.
Discovered as recently as 1958, The Secret Gospel of Mark appears as a fragmentary quotation in a hitherto unknown letter of Clement of Alexandria. The fragmentary quotation comes from an early edition of the Gospel of Mark used by the Carpocratians, a libertine Gnostic group known from the second century. The fragmentary quotation consists of a narrative account of Jesus raising a young man from the dead, an initiation rite, and an encounter between Jesus and three women. The new material quoted from secret Mark occurs between verses Mark 10:34 and Mark 10:35 and after Mark 10:46a of canonical Mark. Cameron surmises that original Mark, composed around 70 A.D., is no longer extant. Our canonical Mark appears to be an abridgment of secret Mark and was composed around the beginning of the second century A.D.
Papyrus Egerton 2 is a Gospel consisting of three fragmentary papyrus leaves of a Greek codex whose original date of composition, according to Cameron, was in the latter part of the first century A.D. It consists of sayings, controversy stories and miracles of Jesus. An examination of its close parallels with John 5:39, John 5:45 and John 9:29 leads Cameron to the conclusion that it is either the source of the narrative in John or an independent witness to the same source from which John drew. It was discovered in Egypt in 1935.
The Gospel of Peter is a fragmentary Greek Gospel text containing a passion narrative, an epiphany story, an empty tomb narrative and an introduction to a resurrection story. It was discovered in Upper Egypt in 1886 or 1887. Its passion narrative is based on oral tradition; there is no evidence of dependence upon the canonical Gospels. Indeed, it is possible that this Gospel antedates the four canonical Gospels and may have served as a source for their authors. Cameron dates the composition of the Gospel to the second half of the first century A.D.
The Gospel of the Hebrews, known since the second century A.D., has been preserved in a few fragmentary quotations by Christian writers of the second century and later. It is a Jewish Christian document narrating the preexistence, birth, baptism and temptation of Jesus, some sayings, and an account of a resurrection appearance to James. It does not appear to have been dependent on the canonical Gospels. Cameron dates its composition to mid-first to mid-second century A.D.
“John’s Preaching of the Gospel” is an independent piece of traditional Gospel material appearing in a text entitled the Acts of John. This part of the Acts, “John’s Preaching of the Gospel,” exists in a manuscript that was discovered in 1886, although part of it had been quoted by Augustine in the fifth 017century A.D. The oldest part of the “Preaching” is a hymn that has parallels with the prologue of canonical John. Its understanding of Jesus is docetic, that is, it argues that while Jesus assumed human form, he was in reality pure spirit. Cameron dates the composition of this homiletic section of the Acts of John to the early second century.
The Gospel of the Nazareans is preserved as fragmentary quotations by certain early Christian writers and in the margins of certain medieval manuscripts. It is an expanded version of the canonical Gospel of Matthew. It was known as early as 180 A.D. and is probably the Gospel text used by a group of Jewish-Christians in western Syria. While the text appears to have been a translation of the Gospel of Matthew into Syriac or Aramaic, it nevertheless introduces new sayings of Jesus.
The Gospel of the Ebionites (a group of early Jewish-Christians) is a Gospel harmony of which only a few fragments are preserved in quotations by Epiphanius, a Christian writer of the fourth century A.D. The Gospel has been known since the second century A.D. It begins with John the Baptist and apparently omits the birth and infancy narratives because the Ebionites did not believe in the virgin birth. Cameron dates the composition of the harmony to the middle of the second century A.D.
The Protoevangelium of James, known since the first half of the third century A.D. from the writings of Origen, survives in numerous Greek manuscripts dating from the tenth century A.D., although in 1958 a third-century Greek manuscript was discovered. The Protoevangelium of James is a composite document, reflecting both oral material and written sources (that is, Matthew and Luke). From the oral tradition come legends of the parents of Mary, her childhood and betrothal to Joseph, Joseph’s previous marriage, and the birth of Jesus. Cameron dates the composition of the text to the middle of the second century A.D.
The Infancy Gospel of Thomas is a collection of miracle stories performed by Jesus before he turned 12 years of age. The oldest manuscript dates from the sixth century A.D., but scholars usually identify the text with an unnamed writing quoted by Irenaeus at the end of the second century A.D. The sources used by the author of the text are Luke’s Gospel and oral tradition. These legendary miracle stories parallel similar accounts of the activities of other “divine men” in antiquity. Cameron dates the composition of the text to the mid-to-late second century A.D.
The Epistula Apostolorum purports to be a letter from the Apostles to a group of “catholic” Christians and includes a revelation of Jesus that validates the catholic teaching. The letter speaks against Simon and Cerinthus, Christian Gnostics of the second century and opponents of the catholic position. Discovered in 1895, it survives in Ethiopic and also in Coptic, which is the oldest translation made from the Greek original. Its discourse/dialogue style is developed out of creedal formulae, catechetical instruction, and excerpts from dogmatic writings, all of which are employed in the service of emerging orthodoxy. Cameron dates the composition of the text to the mid-to-late second century A.D.
The Acts of Pilate has been known since the fourth century A.D. from the works of early church writers, and it survives in several medieval manuscripts dating from the 12th century A.D. It is an apologetic writing that introduces certain theological beliefs of an early Christian community while narrating Jesus’ trial before Pilate, his crucifixion and burial, the empty tomb and a discussion of Jesus’ resurrection by a Jewish council. The sources for the text are the Jewish Scriptures and the New Testament Gospels. Cameron dates the composition of the text to the mid-second to third centuries A.D.
For each of these non-canonical Gospels, Cameron reproduces the usual English translation from previously published texts “with slight alteration in spelling and punctuation and occasional modification in wording … made solely for the sake of consistency and clarity” (p. 12). His translation of the Apocryphon of James, the subject of his Harvard doctoral dissertation, is new and based on a somewhat different transcription of the Coptic text.
Cameron’s anthology is designed for the beginning student. His goal is to provide translations of the non-canonical Gospel literature in an inexpensive format, and he succeeds in admirable fashion. Those who have shared his frustration at the general inaccessibility of these too-long-ignored early Christian Gospel texts will welcome the appearance of the volume. Its publication fills a gap in primary source material for the study of the Jesus traditions, the development of early Christianity and early Christian literature.
The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volume I, Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments
Edited by James H. Charlesworth
(Doubleday & Company: Garden City, New York, 1983) 995 pp., $35.00
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