Glossary: Measuring Time Archaeologically

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You Too Can Talk About Archaeological Periods

Do your eyes glaze over when archaeologists use technical terms like “Iron Age II” or “the Chalcolithic period”? These terms do, however, provide helpful rubrics for understanding the development of culture in the lands of the Bible. Without using this terminology, it’s virtually impossible to hold a meaningful archaeological conversation. It’s important—and, fortunately, not that difficult—to gain at least a general familiarity with the terms used to designate major archaeological periods. The broadest and most general of these periods are the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages named by 19th-century archaeologists for the characteristic material for tools and weapons in each period. While the Stone Age (and its subdivisions) remains entirely in the realm of prehistory—before recorded historical events—the Bronze and Iron Ages and subsequent archaeological periods in the ancient Near East have been closely coordinated with recorded historical events. Each of these later periods has been further subdivided to reflect changes in material culture, such as settlement patterns, architectural innovation and pottery styles. In certain cases, however, the precise points of division of these sub-periods are not agreed upon by all scholars. Thus, while the characteristics of the major archaeological periods are generally accepted, the name used for a sub-period, its particular features as well as the time span included in that sub-period, may remain subjects of continuing controversy.

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Paleolithic Period, or “Old” Stone Age

(c. 700,000–c. 9000 B.C.)

The Paleolithic period covers the earliest stages of human cultural development in the region, from the first appearance of scattered bands of hunter-gatherers to the permanent settlement in the Galilee and the Jordan Valley of the Natufian culture at the end of the last Ice Age. Ubediyah in the upper Jordan Valley and the Carmel Caves near Haifa are among the best-known sites of this long period of climatic and cultural change. Archaeologists have uncovered a variety of early human physical types that date to this time.

Neolithic Period, or “New” Stone Age

(c. 9000–c. 4500 B.C.)

The Neolithic period is characterized by the development and spread of agriculture, domestication of animals and first production of pottery. (For that reason, the period is divided into pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic.) The remains of a Neolithic farming village at Jericho with evidence of a possible fortification system and the textiles, basketry and bone implements from the cave at Nahal Heymar, southwest of the Dead Sea, reveal the social and technical sophistication of the people of this period.

Chalcolithic Period, or “Copper” Stone Age

(c. 4500–c. 3150 B.C.)

The Chalcolithic period is marked by the first use of metal, primarily for ceremonial purposes. The most dramatic find from this period is an exquisite hoard of scepters, crowns and animal figures found in a cave near the Dead Sea. Distinctive regional cultures based on agriculture, pastoralism and, to a limited extent, trade emerged in the Golan, Jordan Valley and the Negev.

Early Bronze Age

(c. 3150–c. 2200 B.C.)

Contemporary with the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods in Egypt, the Early Bronze Age in Canaan witnessed the first appearance of fortified cities and the development of specialized warfare and craftsmanship. Toward the end of the period, many cities throughout the country—such as Megiddo, Tell el-Farah and Ai—were destroyed and abandoned. This seemingly abrupt change ascribed by some scholars to the violent invasions of unidentified outsiders is now seen by many as the result of an economic shift within Canaan from agriculture to pastoralism.

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Middle Bronze Age

(c. 2200–c. 1550 B.C.)

The Middle Bronze Age was a time of urban rebirth and expansion in Canaan. Heavily fortified cities, surrounded by high earthen ramparts, became part of a system of city-states whose rulers were in diplomatic contact with the neighboring empires of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Regular trade with Cyprus was also established in this period. Recent excavations in Israel and in the Nile Delta have suggested a close cultural and economic link between the Canaanite princes and the Hyksos kings of Egypt.

Late Bronze Age

(c. 1550–c. 1200 B.C.)

The Late Bronze Age encompasses the further development of Canaanite culture, under the direct rule of the Egyptian New Kingdom empire. Extensive references to Canaan in Egyptian inscriptions and diplomatic correspondence provide a picture of repeated rebellions in Canaan followed by punitive Egyptian campaigns. Under the supervision of Egyptian officials and military garrisons, the Canaanite cities expanded their trade connections to Crete, mainland Greece and the Aegean islands. However, with the decline of New Kingdom Egypt, the Canaanite city-state system finally came to an end.

Iron Age I

(c. 1200–c. 1000 B.C.)

Iron Age I covers the periods described in the Bible in Judges and Samuel, from the settlement of the Israelite tribes in Canaan to the establishment of the Davidic kingdom. On an archaeological level, it is characterized by the break-up of the older Canaanite culture and the rise of new political and religious groups—among them, the Israelites in the hill country, the Moabites and Ammonites in Transjordan, the Phoenicians along the northern coast and the Philistines to the south. By the end of the period, urbanization was resumed and the various regional cultures of the country began to coalesce.

Iron Age II

(c. 1000–586 B.C.)

Iron Age II is the archaeological designation for the period from the establishment of the United Kingdom of David and Solomon, through the division of the separate kingdoms of Israel in the north and Judah in the south, to the conquest of Jerusalem by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. The start of this period is marked by the construction of royal cities and administrative centers—Jerusalem, Gezer, Megiddo and Hazor, among others throughout the Israelite kingdom. Later in this period, the various royal capitals of the divided kingdoms particularly Jerusalem, Tirzah, Samaria and Dan—were greatly expanded. Evidence of elaborate systems of administration and tax collection has come from Hebrew inscriptions, personal stamp seals, weight stones and standard capacity jars stamped with royal symbols. With the relentless expansionism of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, however, the Iron Age II kingdoms of the lands of the Bible were ultimately destroyed. The northern kingdom of Israel fell to the Assyrians in 721 B.C.; Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia, in 586 B.C., followed by the Exile of the Jews of Judah to Babylonia.

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Persian Period

(539–332 B.C.)

Following several decades of direct rule by the Babylonians (586–539 B.C.), the country passed to the authority of the Persian empire under Cyrus the Great when the Persians conquered Babylon. According to the Biblical books of Ezra and Nehemiah, this was the period of the return of the Judean exiles and the construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. While Persian cultural influence seems to have been minor, the influence of the Greek world began to be felt strongly, especially in the coastal cities.

Hellenistic Period

(332–63 B.C.)

The Hellenistic period was a time of dramatic cultural and political transformation. Beginning with the conquest of the country by Alexander the Great and continuing through the rule of the Ptolemies in Egypt and the Seleucids in Syria, the population of the country became increasingly divided between an Aramaic-speaking peasantry and a thoroughly Hellenized elite. Greek language and artistic forms became the dominant means of cultural expression in the cities. Even the political revolt of the Maccabees and the creation of an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea (150–60 B.C.) did not significantly affect the process of Hellenization.

Roman Period

(63 B.C.–324 A.D.)

Following Pompey’s conquest of Jerusalem in 63 B.C., Judea fell under the political influence of Rome. After the death of client-king Herod the Great in 4 B.C., the country was directly ruled by Roman administrators, and after the suppression of the two Jewish Revolts, it was renamed Palaestina and became a province of the Roman empire. Abundant historical information on this period is preserved in the writings of the first-century A.D. Jewish historian Josephus, in rabbinic sources and in the New Testament. Archaeologically, this period is characterized by ambitious building projects, such as the massive constructions of the Herodian period in Jerusalem, Caesarea and Masada and later commercial cities such as Gerasa in Transjordan.

Byzantine Period

(324–638 A.D.)

Dating roughly from the time of Emperor Constantine’s acceptance of Christianity to the Moslem conquest of Palestine, this period marks the emergence of a distinctive Christian culture in the Holy Land. Palestine, suddenly becoming an important spiritual center for the entire Roman empire, reached a stage of both urban and rural development unequaled until modern times. Among the most characteristic architectural monuments of this period are elaborate churches, synagogues and pilgrimage shrines. Recent discoveries at Hammath Gader, Gerasa and Pella suggest that Byzantine culture continued to thrive even after the establishment of Islamic rule.

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Early Islamic Period

(638–1099 A.D.)

The Early Islamic period is marked by the gradual transformation of the country’s material culture from its Greco-Roman orientation to the developing culture of Islam. During the rule of the Umayyad dynasty (c. 661–c. 750 A.D.), elaborate construction projects such as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the palaces of Khirbet el-Mafjar near Jericho (also known as “Hisham’s Palace”) and Khirbet Minya near the Sea of Galilee reflect an innovative blending of Byzantine and Islamic expression. With the rise to power of the Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (c. 750–c. 878), however, cultural influences from the east were increasingly emphasized. The best-known archaeological remains of the Abbasid period and of the later Fatimid period (c. 969–1099) are examples of monumental architecture, numismatics and decorative arts.

Crusader Period

(1099–1291 A.D.)

With the conquest of Jerusalem by the armies of the first Crusade, the material culture of the country began to be influenced by European architectural styles and artistic techniques. Imposing military strong holds such as Belvoir in the Jordan Valley and Montfort in the Galilee reflected the strategic requirements of European feudal warfare, and the cities of Jerusalem and St. Jean d’Acre (modern Akko) possessed a wide range of European-style civic and ecclesiastical architecture. Western pilgrimage to the Holy Land during the Crusader period is reflected in the remains of the “Pilgrim’s Castle” at Athlit, the Crusader harbor at Caesarea and the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.

Mameluke Period and Ottoman Period

(1291–1517) and (1517–1917)

Following the expulsion of the Crusaders, the country came under the direct control of the Mameluke rulers of Egypt, whose impressive building projects (such as the White Mosque at Ramle, various public fountains in the Old City of Jerusalem and the establishment of caravanserais throughout the country) testify to a measure of prosperity and expanding trade. The conquest of the country by the Ottoman sultans brought an initial period of intensified construction, as can still be seen in the walls of Jerusalem built by Suleiman the Magnificent c. 1540. Toward the end of the Ottoman period, increasing economic and political contact with Europe brought about far-reaching changes in the material culture of the country. These changes paved the way for the even more profound transformation of the country in the 20th century.

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You Too Can Talk About Archaeological Periods Do your eyes glaze over when archaeologists use technical terms like “Iron Age II” or “the Chalcolithic period”? These terms do, however, provide helpful rubrics for understanding the development of culture in the lands of the Bible. Without using this terminology, it’s virtually impossible to hold a meaningful archaeological conversation. It’s important—and, fortunately, not that difficult—to gain at least a general familiarity with the terms used to designate major archaeological periods. The broadest and most general of these periods are the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages named by 19th-century archaeologists for […]